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UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Lebanon

February 8, 2011 By admin

Despite its small size, Lebanon is home to no less than five World Heritage Sites as designated by UNESCO. In addition to the previously discussed Byblos and Tyre, the remaining three of these sites are Ouadi Qadisha and the Forest of the Cedars of God (Horsh Arz el-Rab), Anjar and Baalbek.

Ouadi Qadish or “The Holy Valley” is an important early-Christian monastic settlement. Located in northern part of the Mount Lebanon Mountains, the Qadisha valley is in the foothills of Mount al-Makmel. Here, in the rugged cliffs are the remains of many monasteries and hermitages dating back to the beginnings of Christianity. The main monasteries are those of St. Anthony of Quzhayya and Our Lady of Hauqqa. More difficult to access are the numerous caves in the hillside around the valley which are decorated with early Christian frescoes. The terraces created and farmed by the monks who lived in these settlements are still apparent and some are still being cultivated today.

West of the Qadisha valley, on Mount Makmel, is the Forest of the Cedars of God. Cedar wood was highly valued in antiquity and was used for the building of great structures both in Lebanon and further around the Mediterranean due to mass export. This is one of the few places where this tree (Cedrus Lebani) still grows.

Anjar was a city that was founded during the Umayyad Period, in around 710AD. It was sited at a commercial crossroads and was not discovered by archaeologists until the 1940s. Excavations show a heavily fortified city which was walled and surrounded by forty towers. The city was divided into four quadrants each with its own public or private function and is well preserved, providing a unique insight into 8^th century town planning.

Baalbek is a city and temple complex bordering the fertile Bekaa plain. The city was at its height in Roman times and massive constructions were built over a period of around 200 years making it an important centre of the Roman world. Three main Roman deities were worshipped at Baalbek – Jupiter, Venus and Mercury. The temple complex was built on top of earlier Phoenician remains and contained columns some 20 metres in height. In addition to temples venerating the three main deities there is also a temple dedicated to Bacchus, the Roman god of wine which is very appropriate given that this was a region growing grapes and producing wine, an industry which still continues in the present day.

History and Archaeology at Byblos

February 4, 2011 By admin

Originally called Gebal by the Phoenicians, Byblos, on the coast of Lebanon, is believed to date back to around 5000BC and was possibly the earliest Phoenician city. The name Byblos comes about because the Greeks named the city after the Egyptian papyrus (bublos) which was exported from the city. The present day city is called Jubayl, an Arabic derivation of the original name, Gebal.

Located on the coast north of Beirut, the port of Byblos holds many attractions for both archaeologists and tourists with a thirst for history.

Although the remains of some Neolithic buildings have been found, the first signs of Byblos becoming a town do not appear until the 3^rd millennium BC when the Phoenician civilisation began to develop. Ancient Egyptian literature describes wood being imported from Byblos and early Egyptian artefacts have been found at there.

Archaeological evidence dating to around 1200BC shows an alphabetic script of 22 characters being used, for example on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram. An important monument from this time is the temple of Resheph (a war god.)

By the Persian period (538 – 332BC) Byblos was one of four Phoenician city-states, the others being Sidon, Tyre and Arwad.

By the time of the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332BC, coinage was in use and there is evidence of extensive trade with other Mediterranean nations. It was during the Greco-Roman period that the city became a centre for the cult of Adonis. There are also the remains of a small theatre dating to around the 3^rd century AD and with the rise of Christianity, Byblos became the seat of a Bishop and the town began to grow rapidly.

The city became a strategic military base during the crusades and the ruins of the crusader castle form and impressive visitor attraction at its centre.

This rich history means that Byblos can boast many historic sites to visit and has the status of being a UNESCO World Heritage Site. From Roman ruins to medieval city walls, bronze-age tombs to the fortifications of the Crusaders, visitors are never far from fantastic historical sites.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean History Tagged With: Alexander the Great, Roman ruins Phoenician city

History and Archaeology of Tyre

February 1, 2011 By admin

Another important historic port is Tyre on the coast of present day Lebanon. In the 5th century BC, the Greek historian, Herodotus visited the city and declared it to be one of the oldest in the world. In the Bronze-Age, Tyre had been known for the export of the purple dye for which the Phoenicians were famous. Tyre had been the base from which navigators had explored the Mediterranean going on to found centres such as Cadiz and Carthage, thus establishing the Phoenicians as a major player in bronze-age maritime commerce.
Built on and around a natural harbour, Tyre eventually succumbed to Alexander the Great in 332BC. The Greeks held Tyre until 64BC when it gave way to Rome and a Roman city of some consequence began to be constructed on the site. During the early Christian Period , Tyre was the seat of a Byzantine province which incorporated no less than 14 bishoprics, including that of nearby Byblos. This continued until the Arabs conquered the area in 636 AD. Tyre was to continue under Arabian rule until the time of the Crusades. It was re-taken by the European Crusaders in 1124, with the help of the Venetians. The conquering crusaders set about fortifying the city and it remained a Christian strong-hold until it was almost entirely destroyed by the Mamluks in 1294. Prior to this the Christians had built 18 churches, a castle and had reconstructed the cathedral on the site of the original Byzantine basilica. The city was all but abandoned after the destruction in 1294 and not populated again until it was partly re-built in the 18th century and , despite a more recent population increase, today’s Tyre is home to only around 60,000 people.
For those with an interest in history and archaeology, modern Tyre is certainly worth visiting. In the present town, the visible remains include parts of the Roman city and the medieval structures left by the Crusaders. These sites can be split into two quite distinct areas:
1. The Promontory which is the site of the archipelago. Here can be found the ruins of the Roman palaestra, thermae and arena as well as the remains of the 12th century cathedral built by the Venetians and parts of the walls and castle built during the Crusades.
2. The mainland where the necropolis of El Bass can be found close to the triumphal arch from the 2nd century AD. More Roman ruins are here, in particular the aqueduct and hippodrome which is one of the largest known examples from the Roman world.
The volume and grandeur of the ruin in Tyre show what a high status city it must have once been in its strategic position on the coast of the Mediterranean.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean History Tagged With: Byzantine province, Modern Tyre, Tyre Lebanon

Roman Lebanon

January 31, 2011 By admin

In 64BC, the Roman general Pompey added Lebanon, along with neighbouring Syria, to the Roman Empire. Lebanon flourished under Roman rule and saw an explosion in economic and intellectual activities. The inhabitants of the major cities such as Tyre, Byblos and Sidon were all granted Roman citizenship. These cities became centres for pottery and glass production as well as for the creation of the purple dye that the Phoenicians had been so famous for. Warehouses were created at the coastal harbours in order to store goods imported from elsewhere in the Empire and as far away as India. Trade flourished and Lebanon became a major exporter of Cedar, perfume and wine to Rome as well as fruit and wheat grown in the fertile valleys inland.

The economic prosperity which came with this establishment of Lebanon as a major centre of trade led to an increase in construction and urban development. The first ever Law School was built in what is present day Beirut and a substantial infrastructure of paved roads was built throughout the country so as to link the major cities with one another. Roman temples and monuments were built throughout Lebanon and their ruins punctuate the countryside in the present day with one of the largest to be found at Baalbek.

After the death of Theodosius in 395AD, the Roman Empire was divided into two: the Byzantine (Eastern) part with its capital at Constantinople and the Western part with Rome at its centre. As part of the Byzantine Empire, Lebanon continued to flourish and develop for a further century until earthquakes in the 6^th century destroyed Beirut and the Baalbek temple complex, killing up to 30,000 people. The Law school was also destroyed. This natural disaster, together with corruption and religious unrest which was prevalent in the Byzantine Empire at that time, led to disorder and confusion and weakened the empire leaving it vulnerable to invasion. By this time, the majority of the population of Lebanon had converted to Christianity in common with the rest of the Byzantine Empire but by 636AD Lebanon was occupied by the newly converted Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean Geography Tagged With: Byzantine Empire, Roman Empire

Lebanon History under Arab Rule

January 28, 2011 By admin

By 636AD the Arabs had gained control of much of the eastern Mediterranean as well as their base in the Arabian Peninsula. It was Caliph Abu Bakr who brought Islam to the area we now know as Lebanon, in fact it is around this time that the name Lebanon was adopted for the area. Feelings of nationalism, however, left the indigenous Lebanese keen to preserve their autonomy and whilst the coastal area fell to the conquering Arabs, the inhabitants of the more mountainous region managed to preserve their Lebanese identity and Christian religion, at least in the short term.

From then on a series of Arab dynasties ruled the region for the next 900 years, starting with the Umayyads (660 – 750AD). Muawiyah, their founder was governor of Syria and Lebanon and set about protecting the Arab Empire from threats by the Marada people who lived in the Lebanese mountains and were loyal to the Byzantine Empire. In 667AD Muawiyah entered into an agreement with Constantine IV to pay an annual tribute to keep the Marada at bay.

The Abbasids (750 -1258) replaced the Umayyads in 750AD adopting a much harsher regime in Lebanon which they saw as a country already conquered and fully assimilated into the Arab world. This led to revolts and an abortive rebellion by the mountain peoples in 759AD. By the end of the tenth century, the Amir (Prince) of Tyre proclaimed Lebanon an independent state but this was to be short lived falling to the Fatimids, an Egyptian Arab sect.

The Crusades (1095 – 1291) had an impact on Lebanon. After the capture of Jerusalem, the Crusaders turned their attention to the Lebanese coast and although they didn’t establish a permanent presence, their impact can be seen in the many castles and churches which they left behind.

After the departure of the crusaders, the Mamluks (1282 – 1516) controlled the area. During this time, better relationships with Europe were built due to the trade in luxury goods from the Middle East. Beirut became a centre for this trade and, despite religious conflict between different Lebanese communities, the country flourished and saw an increase in prosperity and intellectual pursuits such as science and literature.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean History Tagged With: Arab dynasties, Arab Empire, Lebanese communities

Lebanese Food

January 26, 2011 By admin

The cultural history of Lebanon has played an important part in shaping its cuisine. The Ottoman Turks, for example, introduced Turkish staples such as Baklava (a sweet pastry) and Laban which is a type of yogurt. The popularity of eating lamb also increased under Ottoman rule. Later, after the first- world-war, the French took control and introduced French food such as croissants.

Fresh ingredients, herbs and spices are at the heart of traditional Lebanese food. Mint, garlic, cinnamon and nutmeg are widely used as are flat-leaf parsley and oregano. Bread, commonly pita, accompanies most meals and in rural areas, women take their bread to the local bakery to bake whilst catching up on the day’s gossip.

Although fruit, vegetables, bread and rice dishes form the basis of the majority of Lebanese meals, lamb and chicken are also eaten widely. The national dish, Kibbeh, is made lamb and cracked wheat mixed together with spices.

Another popular part of the Lebanese diet is Mezze which is a selection of hot and cold dishes that can precede the main course or be served as a meal in their own right. These may include Hummus, stuffed vine leaves, salads and kebabs of lamb or chicken with peppers and onions. Tabbouleh which is a meal made with bulgar wheat and a mixture of herbs and vegetables is also popular.

The climate and fertile soil lead to a wealth of fruit being grown in Lebanon which are used to create desserts. Melon, oranges, grapes and figs are all widely eaten and nuts such as walnuts and pistachios are popular additions to sweet desserts.

In common with much of the Middle-East, coffee is widely drunk, in the thick, Arabic style, sometimes with the addition of ground cardamom. Lebanon’s national alcoholic drink is called Arak (also known as Lion’s Milk.) It is made with anise and is usually served with dessert, whilst the children drink home made lemonade. Beer and wine are also popular and Lebanon boasts a large number of vineyards.

All in all, food plays an important part in Lebanon culture as it is the focus of many social events and celebrations and despite the influx of international restaurant chains in recent years, the local recipes and traditions remain at the heart of Lebanese cuisine.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean Cuisine Tagged With: Lebanese diet, Lebanese meals, Ottoman Turks

Lebanon History under Ottoman Rule

January 22, 2011 By admin

From 1516 to 1916 Lebanon fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Salim I defeated the Mamluks in 1516 after destroying Mamluk resistance at Marj Dabaq. Salim, however, was impressed by the Lebanese ruler, Amir Fakhr ad Din I and decided to grant the Amirs semi-autonomous status as part of what became known as Greater Syria – an area which also included present day Syria, Jordan and Israel.

Ottoman rule can be divided into two periods relating to two family dynasties, the Maans and the Shihabs.

The Maan family had arrived in Lebanon in 1120 to help defend against the crusaders. After settling on the slopes of the Lebanon Mountains they adopted the Druze religion, a form of Islam. The family came to come to prominence with Fakhr ad Din I, who was allowed by the Ottoman authorities to manage his own army, and reached a peak with Fakhr ad Din II (1570 – 1635.) He worked towards achieving total independence for Lebanon and enhanced military and economic development. He was tolerant of different religions and was suspected by some of having been a Christian. After a stay in Italy whilst negotiating an agreement with Ferdinand I, Duke of Tuscany, he became keen on Italian culture and brought Italian engineers and architects to Lebanon to build forts and work on irrigation systems. Such was his success that Lebanon expanded its territory under Fakhr ad Din’s rule, gaining control of Palestine. However, his success came at a price and he was defeated at Kutshuk, and was executed in Damascus in 1635.

None of the subsequent Maan rulers were of as much significance and the Shihabs succeeded in 1697. The most prominent of the Shihabs was Bashir II. After deciding to break from the Ottoman Empire, Bashir allied himself with Mohammed Ali, founder of modern Egypt.

Despite periods of civil and religious unrest, mainly between the Christians and the followers of the Druze religion, Lebanon was to remain under direct Ottoman rule until the end of WWI and during the latter half of the nineteenth century became an intellectual centre with the founding of the American University of Beirut in 1866, and the French St. Joseph’s University following in 1875.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean History Tagged With: Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Rule, The crusaders

Ancient History of Lebanon

January 20, 2011 By admin

The area which is now Lebanon has a very long history of habitation, due to its enviable position on the Mediterranean and its fertile topography and warm climate.

There is substantial evidence that early humans were fashioning flint tools in the region as far back as 50,000 years ago (the Palaeolithic period) and it is logical, due to Lebanon’s position, to presume that we had lived and passed through it during waves of migration from Africa into Europe and Asia at times prior to that.

Evidence for early farming settlements in Lebanon exists and dates to around 9000BC. The remains of these villages have been found near to the coast at Byblos and archaeological evidence from them provides some of the earliest clues to the origins of the domestication of plants and animals.

Moving into recorded history, the first references (around 4000BC,) to the region call it Canaan. The Canaanites traded commodities such as cedar wood, wine and olive oil to other tribes around the eastern Mediterranean until they were conquered by the Egyptians in around 1800BC. By 1200BC, however, they had recovered their independence and were a thriving bronze-age nation and part of the Phoenician Empire. Cities such Byblos and Tyre were amongst the largest in the known world at that time and were seats of great power, again with the advantageous coastal position contributing to the establishment of lucrative trade routes.

This boom in population and prosperity was to continue until around 875BC when the more war-like Assyrians invaded in search of new territories and eventually destroyed Byblos and Tyre. In 585BC it was the turn of the Babylonians to occupy Phoenicia and when the cities rebelled, Tyre was destroyed yet again.

The Babylonian occupation was short-lived and gave way to the Persians in 538BC. This would seem to have been a more convivial arrangement for a time as the Phoenicians supported Persia in their war against the Greeks in the 5^th century BC. This relationship was to come to an end a century later when the Phoenicians revolted against the heavy taxes imposed by the Persians.

In 332BC the Phoenicians put up little resistance to Alexander the Great and once again Tyre was besieged. The conquest left a long lasting Greek influence on the area as the Phoenicians were adaptable and absorbed some of the more beneficial aspects of Greek commerce and culture into their own.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean History Tagged With: Babylonian occupation, History of Lebanon

Lebanon Geography and Climate

January 17, 2011 By admin

In order to understand Lebanon history it is important to look at the geography and location of the country. Lebanon is a relatively small country lying on the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean. It has a coastline of 225km and is about 46km wide. Despite its size, however, Lebanon geography is varied with green, fertile valleys against a mountainous backdrop provided by the Mount Lebanon Range, the highest peak of which is Qornet Es-Saouda at 3,900metres. In fact it is the snow covered winter peaks which give the country its name as “Lubnan” is the Arabic word for white. These mountains are home to some of the only ski resorts in the Middle East boasting a skiing season which lasts from December until April. A stretch of more arid mountains, known as the Anti-Lebanon Range, forms part of Lebanon’s border with Syria.

The fertile valleys have been a major benefit to Lebanon throughout its long history and indeed have attracted people since ancient times. The Romans referred to the Bekaa Valley as “the breadbasket” of their empire and it is still Lebanon’s main agricultural area. It is situated on a plateau between the two mountainous regions and produces much of the country’s wheat, grapes and olives for although the summers there are hot and dry, the Bekaa is served by an extensive river system. The Bekaa Valley is also home to Lebanon’s best wineries and it is thought that the word Bekaa may be related to the Roman god of wine, Bacchus, as one of the largest temples built in his honor is to be found in the area.

The Lebanese coast, from which visitors to the country are never very far, has a temperate climate with hot, sunny summers and cooler, rainier winters. The coastal cities of Saida (Sidon) and Jbail (Byblos) offer tourists the chance to go snorkeling amongst the underwater ruins of the Ancient Phoenician Empire. Daytime temperatures here in the summer months hover at around 86 degrees Fahrenheit dropping to around 60 degrees in the winter whilst only a few miles away in the mountains the temperature can be below freezing.

It is certainly the topography and climate of Lebanon which, together with its position on the Mediterranean coast, led to its ancient attraction to conquering peoples and contributes to the country’s prosperity today.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean Climate Tagged With: Lebanese coast, Mount Lebanon Range

Lebanese Cuisine

January 13, 2011 By admin

Lebanese traditional dishes are similar to the cuisine you would find in other countries of the Eastern Med, for example Greece and Egypt.

Kibbe is one of the national dishes from Lebanon, its a cracked wheat and minced lamb pie that is is eaten with a tomato and parsley salad (The Tabbouleh). The national drink of Lebanon is called arak which is an alcoholic drink made from grapes thats tastes of strong aniseed. The drink is drunk mixed with ice and water.

Lebanese traditional dish

Lebanese cuisine also consists of ‘Mezze’ which is a mixture of small dishes such as pastries, salads etc. YOu would normally have this as your starter then you would have various grilled fish or meat.

Arabic coffee is widely drunk in Lebanon and is normally drunk after your meal.

Filed Under: Eastern Mediterranean Cuisine Tagged With: lebanese food, lebanon cuisine, national dishes, traditional dishes